'Psychological persperctive in health and social care Essay\r'

'The behavioristic persuasion\r\nThe demeanorist military position is an thought process that we plunder work out into any type of deportment by looking at what the un split up has wellspring-educated. This includes spirit traits a enormous deal(prenominal) as shyness, confidence, optimism or pessimism. behavioristic psychologists explain altogether gentlemans gentleman demeanour as resulting from fetch. 2 sepa give a flaire psychologists be Pavlov and mule skinner, although these both theorists believed that antithetical processes were gnarly, they both explained either types of demeanour as existence the result of escorting. This is e real thing from shyness to antagonism and happiness to depression. Classical condition\r\nClassical instruct was a surmise splited by a Russian psychologist cal direct Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). He was working with shacks to investigate their digestive systems. The traverses were attached to a dominate and Pavlo v attached monitors to their stomachs and mouths so he could measure the g bestridee of salivation. He noniced that the dog began to slabber when some superstar entered the room with a bowl of pabulum for thought, notwithstanding in the first placehand the dog had eaten the aliment. Since salivation is a reflex retort, this seemed unusual. Pavlov decided that the dog was salivating beca consumption it had in condition(p) to associate the soulfulness with f ar. He wherefore lordly a surmisal. Food mechanic completelyy led to the salivation response, since this response had not been visited, he c from each ane(prenominal)ed this an un fix response, which is a response that regularly overhauls when an unconditioned arousal is presented.\r\nAs food automatic solelyy railss to this response, he called this unconditioned stimulus, which is a stimulus that regularly and consistently leads to an automatic response. Pavlov then presented food at the corresponding meter as ringing a price (neutral stimulus), to see if the dog would learn to associate the bell with food. After some(prenominal) trials, the dog learned that the bell was associated with food and eventually it began to salivate b arg solitary(prenominal) when the bell was rung and no food was presented. It therefore has learned the conditioned response (CR) of salivation to the conditioned stimulus (CS) of the bell. Operant conditioning\r\nThis correct of cultivation is associated with the theories of Burrhus Frederic mule driver (1904 †1990). Skinner was an Ameri womanly genital organ psychologist who worked to a greater extent practically than not with exposes and pigeons, to learn some of the key principles of instruction virgin behaviours. He used a precise famous gizmo, called a skinner box. Skinner famous device was a box which contained a jimmy which, when pressed, releases a food pellet into the box, thus reinforcing prize- military press behaviour. W hen the fail is first placed in the box it al low-spirited for run around and sniff the divers(a) items in the box and at some point it go forth press the lever, releasing a food pellet. After a while of the repeated performed meet the rat go a office learn this behaviour (pressing the lever) is automatically viewed by the release of a food pellet (the event). Because the pellet is see as reinforcing (something the rat would inadequacy to crap more than of), this consequence increases the prob capability of the behaviour creation repeated.\r\nThere argon both types of reinforcer: authoritative reinforcement and shun reinforcement. Skinner investigated negative reinforcement by ravel a very low electrical under personal manner passim the floor of the Skinner box. The current can be de-activated if the rat pressed the lever. The behaviour of lever pressing was thus negatively reinforcing. For homosexuals, this can be demonstrate by the workout of employ pain relief. For vitrine, if you give up aches and perseverance and you take a painkiller, which results in the aches and pains going away, you be negatively rein coerce for fetching a painkiller. Punishment occurs tho when behaviour is followed by a consequence that is experienced as unpleasant. Skinner investigated this by big(a) the rat a nice electric shock when the rat pressed the lever. The consequence of the lever pressing (the electric shock) was experienced as unpleasant, so the rat learned to stop pressing the lever. Social cultivation surmisal\r\nThe make of former(a) idiosyncratics on behaviour\r\nThere be some(prenominal) sours on our behaviour, for example peers, siblings, call forths, television, media, sports personalities and opposite(a) celebrities. Well tally to companionable learning scheme, cordial occasion mystifys atomic progeny 18 very beta. small-arm we whitethorn learn new behaviours from anyone, the deallihood of imitating behavi ours is sloppedly biasd by the way we perceive the person performing the behaviour (the model). If we obtain someone we admire behaving in a goicular way, we whitethorn be more possible to attend such(prenominal)(prenominal) behaviour. If, for example\r\nThe do of groups on behaviour\r\nOur behaviour is strongly influenced by the presence of other(a)s, however lots we believe ourselves to be rattling mortals in our beliefs and behaviour. Nowhere is this more cl early demonstrated than in the experiments conducted in the 1950’s by loving psychologist Solomon Asch. He was raise in a supposition called majority influence. This is when the presence of other pot causes us to spay our public behaviour or opinions because we do not want to stand out from the motion (be different). We have a correctly desire to belong and allow ‘go along’ with what others in our group say, gauge and do in hallow to sum up IN. This is what he did to test this idea. A group of six of the experimenter ( wad who were play-acting fit in to instructions) were joined by a naive federal agencyicipant (a at tried and true take get officipant who knew nothing intimately the nature of the experiment) in a task that supposedly tested visual perception. The experimenter explained that the task involved stating whether a target line. The personal effects of civilisation and society on behaviour\r\nThe term farming refers to the coped values, norms, language, customs and practices of a group. Most of us hunt to think of culture as world specific to different countries. It is classic to transform how culture affects our behaviour in order to gain a expert understanding of volume we do it across and those we work with.\r\nThe ego-fulfilling prophecy\r\nThis bit is an important idea in psychology that plays a big role on the way we f atomic number 18 towards others and pay them to behave towards us. If we believe ourselves to be worthy, pleasant and likeable then we leave most in spades be polite and cheery towards those we meet and this leave behind realize a favourable impression. In response to those who may observe into contact with us raft us favourably and behave in a positive way towards us, with the result that our witness positive egotism-beliefs atomic number 18 confirmed. To raise it another way, we be angry, profuse of resentment, believe the world is against us and more, then we atomic number 18 potential to behave in a more aggressive, confrontational or argumentative way, in which field that is how we go forth be entranceed, which leave confirm our captivates of ourselves and the world. Role guess\r\nBetween role opening and the self-fulfilling prophecy there is a similarity, in that role theory comments that because we live within a particular culture, society and social group, we are influenced by other populate. This influence helps lead us to taking up original roles and undertakeing to live up to the expectations that go with that role. Albert Bandura\r\nSocial learning theory explains behaviour as the result of learning from people we are exposed to in our environment. We can besides learn new behaviours from people we observe, either in real living or in the media. This is cognize as observational learning and this theory was induceed by the American psychologist, Albert Bandura. The person we learn from is k straightn as a role model, and the process of imitating is called modelling. However, we do not imitate all behaviour we observe and remember. Whether or not it is in our interests to imitate particular behaviour is influenced by characteristics of the model. If we see a model universe punished for authoritative behaviour, we are little apt(predicate) to imitate it than if we see him or her being positively reinforced. The psychodynamic internal climax\r\nThe importance of the unconscious wit:\r\nSigmund Freud\r\nFreud was one of the early thinkers to use up to public attention the idea that we are not ever aware of all aspects of ourselves. He suggested that what we are aware of is be in our conscious school principal but many of our memories, nips and away experiences are locked up in a part of our intellectual he called ‘unconscious’. We cannot price of admission the contents of our unconscious, but they often ‘leak out’ in dreams and slips of the tongue. Freud believed that the conscious mind was like the tip of an iceberg †still a small part being available to awareness. crash of the unconscious that we can soft access he called the pre-conscious. This contains knowledge not yet in consciousness but that can easily be retrieved (e.g. the pay heed of your friends dog). The rest, well under the surface, consisted of the unconscious. magnificence of early experiences\r\nThe importance of early experience in determine later behaviours is clearly illustrated b y Freud’s victimizational theory of psychosexual faces. He believed that we all go by dint of several salutes of psychosexual development. At all(prenominal) peak, the soul’s libido (energy) is pennyer on a part of the body that is oddly pertinent at that introduce. If the occupys of the growth sister are met at each exhibit, it moves on to the abutting developmental tip. If however, there is skin or conflict or some unsatisfactory experience, the someone aims ‘fixated’ (stuck) at this level. This results in definite ways of being, or personality traits, which are carried through into adulthood and which can explain behaviour later in life. The earliest stage is the ‘oral stage’.\r\nThe pore here is on the mouth and activities such as sucking, biting and licking. (You will belike have noticed that solidization babies seem to put everything in their mouths.) Freud believed that there could be 2 reasons for fixation . If the infant was weaned excessively early, it would feel forever under-satisfy and ungratified and would develop into a pessimistic, mordant person. If, on the other hand, it was everyplace- gratified (weaned in addition late) the individual would develop a gullible personality, naively trusting in others and with a tendency to ‘swallow anything’. This stage lasts from give birth to roughly 18 months. If the infant success fully passes through the oral stage without change state fixated, the next stage is the ‘anal foresightful stage’, which lasts from approximately one to three years. Here the libido is rivet on aspects to do with muckle training. If there is a affair with parents almost potty training with the sister feeling forced to use the potty before they are bustling, or feeling everywhere †controlled in variant areas, they may rebel by retaining their faeces: the sister refuses to ‘go’, thus tolerateing on to c ontrol and withholding triumph from the parent.\r\nThis type of fixation is called ‘anally retentive’ and is associated with later personality characteristics such as obstinacy, miserliness and neurotic traits. The alternative scenario is that the nestling is not given enough boundaries over potty training so they take excessive enjoyment in excretion and break d knowledge a messy, creative, disorganised sort of person. During the ages of four to tailfin the electric razor passes through the ‘phallic stage’. Fixation at this stage is associated with fear and inculpative feelings approximately sex and fear of expurgation for males. If this stage is not resolved, the theory suggests that a boy may become homosexual and a girl may become a lesbian. Freud thought these were atypical fixations; however most people to daylight would not view them in this way. Between the ages of five to seven and the on snip of puberty, the child enters the ‘lat ency stage’, which is not strictly speaking a developmental phase but a cadence when the focus is on social pursuits such as sport, academic probity and the development of friendships. The final psychosexual stage is the ‘genital stage’, which begins at puberty.\r\nFreud believed that the less fixated the individual has become during the earlier stages, the more easily this stage will be n egotiated, resulting in the ability to form strong straight relationships with an ability to be nimble and loving as well as to receive heat in a new, spring up fashion. A second important feature of early experience is the development of ego demurrer mechanisms. The use of a defence mechanism allows us to obstruction out events that threaten to sweep over us. A final influence is that of the mind. Freud suggested that the mind (which he called the psyche) is divided into three dynamic parts. The id is a part of the mind which is solely unconscious and which exists a t birth. It is focused on getting what it wants and consists of aggressive, sexual and loving instincts. It is the part of us that says ‘i want it now!’ The superego is formed as a result of socialisation and consists of all instructions, morals and values that are repeatedly enforced as we are growing up. It takes on the form of a scruples and to a fault represents our view of our paragon self. The main role of the superego is to try to sub due(p) the activity of the id.\r\nThe ego tries to dimension the demands of the id and the superego. It is the discerning part of the mind, always want to do what is most helpful to the individual. divergent behaviours can be mum by trying to interpolate which part of the psyche is rife at any time. A person who is very abject, guilty and always wanting to recreate may have a very strong superego. A person who is impulsive, careless of other people’s feelings, doesn’t think through the consequences of their actions and is peradventure inclined to aggression, either communicative or physical, probably has a dominant id. A person who can be submissive and assertive when necessary, who is bale to think about other people’s feelings but also consider and value their own needs, has probably got a strong enough ego to balance the demands of the id and the superego. They are potential to have instead a rational and realistic outlook on life. Erik Erikson\r\nErik Erikson was a psychologist who agreed with much of Freud’s theory in so far as he thought that we developed through a serial of stages. However, he thought that these move throughout our lifetime and were essentially social in nature. He also believed that Freud put too much emphasis on our desire for individual joy and not enough on our need to be accepted by society and lead a meaningful life. Erikson suggested that we move through a serial publication of psychosocial crises with a different social focus at eac h stage. For example amongst birth and the age of one, the life crisis concerns develop trust or intuition in self and others. The social focus at this stage is the mother. The human-centred perspective\r\n gracious psychology looks at human experience from the viewpoint of the individual. It focuses on the idea of free will and the belief that we are all capable of devising choices for ourselves. devil psychologists associated with this approach path are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Abraham Maslow\r\nMaslow (1908-1970) was an American psychologist who believed that we are all seeking to become the best that we can possibly can- spiritually, physically, emotionally and intellectually. He called this Self- literalisation. He constructed a theory cognize as the pecking order of needs, in which he explained that every human being requires veritable basic needs to be met before they can approach the next level. Maslow believed that until our basic mental needs are met, we will focus all our energies on getting them met and not be able to progress further. When people are well-housed, well-fed and well-situated physically, we begin to focus on our emotional needs, like the need to belong and be love and to feel self-esteem. When our lives are such that these needs are also met, we strive to self-actualise. As Maslow tell ‘A musician essential make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if that person is to be ultimately at peace with their self’. What a person can be, they must be. This need we call self-actualisation. Carl Rogers\r\nRogers (1902-1987) was particularly interested in the fantasy of self. There are many aspects of the self but devil are especially important here. Self-concept refers to the way in which we view ourselves. This includes physical, biologic attributes like being male or female, nordic or brunette, short or tall, as well as personality traits like being kind, humble, assertive and hard working. The self -concept is formed from an early age and young children internalise other people’s judgements of them, which then become a part of their self â€concept. If a child is told their silly, naughty apart of self-concept will contain these aspects. Another way of looking at it is a child is praised, encouraged to espouse and told they are valued; they will have a positive self-concept and see themselves as someone who is worthwhile and competent. Rogers believed that we also hold a concept of self, called the apotheosis self. This holds a view of ourselves as we feel we should be and as we would like to be. When there is a mismatch between our actual self and our ideal self we become troubled and unhappy. The cognitive/information processing perspective\r\nThis psychological perspective has gained massive ground since the 1960’s, when the influence of behaviourism began to happen. With the development of computers came the idea that fountainhead activity was like the performance of a computer. A great deal of enquiry had been apply to understanding cognitive processes such as attention, memory, perception, information processing, fuss solving, thought language and other aspects of cognition. A way to understand this perspective is it relates to health and social care, we are going to stick out on just two theorists: blue jean Piaget and George Kelly. Jean Piaget\r\nJean Piaget (1896-1980) was a Swiss psychologist who initially worked on measuring intelligence. During his research he noticed children of the very(prenominal) age made the same mistakes in logic, however magnificent they were. He came to the conclusion that cognition develops through a serial of stages, each new stage building on the front one. George Kelly\r\nGeorge Kelly (1905-1966) developed a rummy psychological theory known as the psychology of personal Constructs. He saw the individual as a scientist, making predictions about the future, testing them and, i f necessary, revise them according to new evidence. A construct is a way of construing (interpreting and making sense of) human race and the environment. For example\r\nif an individual develops\r\nThe biological perspective\r\nMaturational theory\r\nThe theory of maturement holds that the effects of the environment are minimal. The child is born with a set of cistrontic instructions passed bolt down from its parents, and its cognitive, physical and other developmental processes merely unfold over time, rather than being restricted upon the environment to mature. It is, in effect, a theory which states that development is due to nature not nurture. This is quite a contrast to the learning theory or humanistic theory, where the effects of nurture are paramount. Gesell’s theory of maturation\r\nArnold Gesell (1880-1961) believed that development occurred according to a sequence of maturational processes. For example, development in the womb follows a fixed set of stages: the oculus begins to form first, along with the cardinal nervous system. Bones and muscles develop next and over time the organism develops into a fully functioning human being, ready to be born. As the child develops from birth onwards, its genes allow it to pinnacle gradually into the person he or she is meant to be. The environment should allow support for this unfolding of talents, skills, personality and interests but the main thing driving this development is the maturational process. Genetic influences on behaviour\r\nGenes can affect behaviour in many ways. near disorders, like Huntington’s disease, are caused by a bingle dominant gene, which either parent can pass on to their child. Others, like cystic fibrosis and reaping hook cell anaemia, are caused when both parents pass on the gene for the disorder. Disorders that occur irrespective of the environmental influences, such as those listed above, are genetically determined disorders. This sum that the indivi dual who inherits the gene or genes is certain to develop the disorder, regardless of the environmental factors. An example of this is Huntington’s disease. This disorder usually begins to immortalize when the individual is aged between 30 and 50 years. Symptoms of insanity appear and the individual is likely to die about 15 years after the onset. somewhat of the changes in behaviour are listed below, though this list is not comprehensive: Hallucinations and delusions\r\nSevere muddiness\r\nProgressive memory less\r\nInappropriate speech; use of jargon or ravish words\r\nPersonality changes including anxiety and depression, withdrawal from social interaction, decreased ability to care for oneself and inability to maintain employment. Disorders that are not genetically determined, but where an individual’s genes may leave them with a vulnerability to exploitation the disorder, are far more common. A classic way of measuring the contribution of genes to any type of behaviour is through repeat studies. There are two types of twins. Monozygotic or identical, twins share ampere-second percent of their genetic material since they are formed from only one fertilised egg, which has divided into two. dizygous or (fraternal) twins share only 50 per cent of genetic material since they occur when two eggs are fertilised by different spermatozoon at the same time.\r\nIf, the reasoning goes, one of a gallus of monozygotic twins has a disorder, it would be expected that, if genes are the only influence, the second twin must also have the disorder. The influence of the nervous and ductless secretor systems on behaviour The involuntary nervous system produces its effects through activation of facial expression fibres throughout the nervous system, mental capacity and body or by stimulating the release of hormones from the endocrinal secretory organs (such as the adrenal and pineal glands). Hormones are biochemical substances that are released into the bloodstream and have a profound effect on target organs and on behaviour. They are present in very small quantities and individual molecules have a very short life, so their effects quickly disappear if they are not secreted continuously. There are a large number of hormones including:\r\nMelatonin, which is released by the pineal gland and acts on the brainstem cat stillness mechanisms to help synchronise the phases of sleep and activity. Testosterone, which is released in the testicles and may influence aggressiveness. Oxytocin, which is released by the pituitary gland and stimulates milk production and female orgasms. Some hormones are released as a response to immaterial stimuli. For example, the pineal gland responds to trim daylight by change magnitude production of melatonin. Other hormones follow a circadian rhythm, with one peak and one boulder clay every 24 arcminutes. (Circadian delegacy ‘about a day’ and refers to a 24 hour rhythm). For inst ance, levels of cortisol rise about an hour before you provoke up and contribute to your feelings of wakefulness or arousal.\r\n'